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Contents

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Preface About This Book

Chapter 1 Introduction

• Background and Goals
• Language Overview
• Manual Notation

Chapter 2 Syntax

• Overview
• Libraries and Modules
• Bindings
• Macros
• Bodies
• Definitions
• Local Declarations
• Expressions
• Statements
• Parameter Lists
• Lexical Syntax
• Special Treatment of Names
  • Escaping Names
  • Function Call Shorthand
• Top-Level Definitions
• Dylan Interchange Format
  • language: language-name [Header keyword]
  • module: module-name [Header keyword]
  • author: text [Header keyword]
  • copyright: text [Header keyword]
  • version: text [Header keyword]
• Naming Conventions

Chapter 3 Program Structure

• Modules
  • Defining Module Bindings
• Libraries

Chapter 4 Program Control

• Overview
• Function Calls
  • General Syntax
  • Slot Reference
  • Element Reference
• Operators
• Assignment
• Conditional Execution
  • True and False
• Iteration
  • Iteration Statements
  • Tail Recursion
• Nonlocal Exits and Cleanup Clauses
• Multiple Values
• Order of Execution
  • Execution Order Within Expressions

Chapter 5 Types and Classes

• Overview
• The Type Protocol
  • Base Types and Pseudosubtypes
  • Type Disjointness
• Classes
  • Features of Classes
  • Creating Classes
  • Class Inheritance
  • Computing the Class Precedence List
• Slots
  • Slot Inheritance
  • Slot Specifications
  • Init Specifications
  • Init-Keywords
  • Slot Allocation
  • Constant Slots
  • Specializing Slots
  • Overriding Slots in Subclasses
  • Using Slots
• Instance Creation and Initialization
  • Overview
  • Additional Behavior of Make and Initialize
  • Initialization of Class Allocated Slots
  • Testing the Initialization of a Slot
  • Inherited Slot Specifications
  • Initialization Argument Specifications
  • Initialization Argument Inheritance
• Singletons
• Union Types
• Limited Types
  • Limited Type Constructor
  • Limited Integer Types
  • Limited Integer Type Protocol
  • Limited Collection Types

Chapter 6 Functions

• Overview
  • Generic Functions
  • Methods
  • Methods in Generic Functions
  • Local Methods
  • Bare Methods
  • Closures
• Parameter Lists
  • Kinds of Parameters
  • Kinds of Parameter Lists
  • Specializing Required Parameters
  • Keyword Parameters
  • Types for Keyword Parameters
  • Return Value Declarations
  • Parameter List Congruency
  • Parameter Lists of Implicitly Defined Generic Functions
• Method Dispatch
  • Method Specificity
  • Calling Less Specific Methods
  • Passing Different Arguments to Next-Method
  • The Next-Method Parameter
• Operations on Functions

Chapter 7 Conditions

• Background
• Overview
• Signalers, Conditions, and Handlers
• Exception Handling
  • Stack Model
  • Recovery and Exits
  • Restarts
  • Recovery Protocols
• Condition Messages
• Introspective Operations

Chapter 8 Collections

• Overview
  • The Iteration Protocol
• Collection Keys
• Iteration Stability and Natural Order
• Mutability
• Collection Alteration and Allocation
• Collection Alignment
• Defining a New Collection Class
• Tables
• Element Types
• Limited Collection Types
  • Element Type Subclassing
  • Creating Limited Collection Types
  • Uninstantiable Limited Collection Types
  • Instantiable Limited Collection Types

Chapter 9 Sealing

• Overview
• Explicitly Known Objects
• Declaring Characteristics of Classes
• Declaring Characteristics of Generic Functions
• Define Sealed Domain
  • Rationale
  • Pseudosubtype Examples
  • Abbreviations for Define Sealed Domain
  • Implied Restrictions on Method Definitions

Chapter 10 Macros

• Overview
  • Compilation and Macro Processing
• Extensible Grammar
  • Definition Macros
  • Statement Macros
  • Function Macros
• Macro Names
• Rewrite Rules
• Patterns
  • Special Rules for Definitions
  • Special Rules for Statements
  • Special Rules for Function Macros
• Pattern Variable Constraints
  • Intermediate Words
• Templates
• Auxiliary Rule Sets
• Hygiene
  • Intentional Hygiene Violation
  • Hygiene Versus Module Encapsulation
• Rewrite Rule Examples
  • Statement Macros
  • Begin
  • Block
  • Case
  • For
  • If
  • Method
  • Select
  • Unless
  • Until
  • While
  • Definition Macros
  • Define Class
  • Define Constant
  • Define Domain
  • Define Generic
  • Define Library
  • Define Method
  • Define Module
  • Define Variable
  • Operator Function Macros
  • &
  • |
  • :=
  • Additional Examples
  • Test and Test-setter
  • Transform!
  • Formatting-table
  • With-input-context
  • Define Command
  • Get-resource
  • Completing-from-suggestions
  • Define Jump-instruction

Chapter 11 The Built-In Classes

• Overview
• Objects
  • <object> [Open Abstract Class]
• Types
  • General Types
  • <type> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • Classes
  • <class> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Singletons
  • <singleton> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
• Simple Objects
  • Characters
  • <character> [Sealed Class]
  • Symbols
  • <symbol> [Sealed Class]
  • Booleans
  • <boolean> [Sealed Class]
• Numbers
  • General Numbers
  • <number> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Complex Numbers
  • <complex> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • Reals
  • <real> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • Floats
  • <float> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • <single-float> [Sealed Class]
  • <double-float> [Sealed Class]
  • <extended-float> [Sealed Class]
  • Rationals
  • <rational> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • Integers
  • <integer> [Sealed Class]
• Collections
  • General Collections
  • <collection> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Explicit Key Collections
  • <explicit-key-collection> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Sequences
  • <sequence> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Mutable Collections
  • <mutable-collection> [Open Abstract Class]
  • <mutable-explicit-key-collection> [Open Abstract Class]
  • <mutable-sequence> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Stretchy Collections
  • <stretchy-collection> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Arrays
  • <array> [Open Abstract Instantiable Class]
  • Vectors
  • <vector> [Open Abstract Instantiable Class]
  • <simple-vector> [Sealed Abstract Instantiable Class]
  • <simple-object-vector> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • <stretchy-vector> [Open Abstract Instantiable Primary Class]
  • Deques
  • <deque> [Open Abstract Instantiable Primary Class]
  • Lists
  • <list> [Sealed Instantiable Abstract Class]
  • <pair> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • <empty-list> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Ranges
  • <range> [Open Abstract Instantiable Primary Class]
  • Strings
  • <string> [Open Abstract Instantiable Class]
  • <byte-string> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • <unicode-string> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Tables
  • <table> [Open Abstract Instantiable Primary Class]
  • <object-table> [Open Abstract Instantiable Class]
• Functions
  • General Functions
  • <function> [Sealed Abstract Class]
  • Generic Functions
  • <generic-function> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Methods
  • <method> [Sealed Class]
• Conditions
  • General Conditions
  • <condition> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Serious Conditions
  • <serious-condition> [Open Abstract Class]
  • Errors
  • <error> [Open Abstract Class]
  • <simple-error> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • <type-error> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • <sealed-object-error> [Sealed Class]
  • Warnings
  • <warning> [Open Abstract Class]
  • <simple-warning> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Restarts
  • <restart> [Open Abstract Class]
  • <simple-restart> [Sealed Instantiable Class]
  • Aborts
  • <abort> [Sealed Instantiable Class]

Chapter 12 The Built-In Functions

• Overview
• Constructing and Initializing Instances
  • General Constructor
  • make [Open Generic Function]
  • make class #rest supplied-init-args #key ⇒ object [G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<array>)) #key dimensions fill ⇒ array [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<deque>)) #key size fill ⇒ deque [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<range>)) #key from by to above below size ⇒ deque [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<table>)) #key size ⇒ object-table [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<vector>)) #key size fill ⇒ simple-object-vector [Sealed G.F. Method] make (singleton (<simple-vector>)) #key size fill ⇒ simple-object-vector [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • make (singleton (<list>)) #key size fill ⇒ list [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • Initialization
  • initialize [Open Generic Function]
  • initialize object #key ⇒ object [G.F. Method]
  • slot-initialized? [Open Generic Function]
  • Specific Constructors
  • list [Function]
  • pair [Function]
  • range [Function]
  • singleton [Function]
  • limited [Function]
  • limited (singleton (<integer>)) #key min max ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<collection>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<explicit-key-collection>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<mutable-collection>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<stretchy-collection>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<mutable-explicit-key-collection>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<sequence>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<mutable-sequence>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<table>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<object-table>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<array>)) #key of size dimensions ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<vector>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<simple-vector>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<stretchy-vector>)) #key of ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method] limited (singleton (<deque>)) #key of ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<string>)) #key of size ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • limited (singleton (<range>)) #key of ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • type-union [Function]
  • vector [Function]
• Equality and Comparison
  • Logical Negation
  • ~ [Function]
  • Equality Comparisons
  • == [Function]
  • ~== [Function]
  • = [Open Generic Function]
  • object1 = object2 ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • complex1 = complex2 ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • collection1 = collection2 ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • sequence1 = sequence2 ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • list1 = list2 ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • list = sequence ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method] sequence = list ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • range1 = range2 ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • ~= [Function]
  • Magnitude Comparisons
  • < [Open Generic Function]
  • real1 < real2 ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • character1 < character2 ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • string1 < string2 ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • > [Function]
  • <= [Function]
  • >= [Function]
  • min [Function]
  • max [Function]
• Arithmetic Operations
  • Properties
  • odd? [Function]
  • even? [Function]
  • zero? [Open Generic Function]
  • zero? complex ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • positive? [Open Generic Function]
  • positive? real ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • negative? [Open Generic Function]
  • negative? real ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • integral? [Open Generic Function]
  • integral? object ⇒ false [G.F. Method]
  • integral? real ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • Arithmetic Operations
  • + [Open Generic Function]
  • complex1 + complex2 ⇒ complex [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • * [Open Generic Function]
  • complex1 * complex2 ⇒ complex [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • - [Open Generic Function]
  • complex1 - complex2 ⇒ complex [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • / [Open Generic Function]
  • complex1 / complex2 ⇒ complex [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • negative [Open Generic Function]
  • negative real1 ⇒ real2 [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • floor [Function]
  • ceiling [Function]
  • round [Function]
  • truncate [Function]
  • floor/ [Function]
  • ceiling/ [Function]
  • round/ [Function]
  • truncate/ [Function]
  • modulo [Function]
  • remainder [Function]
  • ^ [Open Generic Function]
  • complex ^ integer ⇒ number [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • abs [Open Generic Function]
  • abs complex ⇒ real [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • logior [Function]
  • logxor [Function]
  • logand [Function]
  • lognot [Function]
  • logbit? [Function]
  • ash [Function]
  • lcm [Open Generic Function]
  • lcm integer1 integer2 ⇒ integer3 [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • gcd [Open Generic Function]
  • gcd integer1 integer2 ⇒ integer3 [Sealed G.F. Method]
• Coercing and Copying Objects
  • identity [Function]
  • values [Function]
  • General Coercion Function
  • as [Open Generic Function]
  • as collection-type collection ⇒ instance-of-collection-type [G.F. Method]
  • as (singleton (<integer>)) character ⇒ integer [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • as (singleton (<character>)) integer ⇒ character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • as (singleton (<symbol>)) string ⇒ symbol [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • as (singleton (<string>)) symbol ⇒ string [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • Coercing Case
  • as-uppercase [Open Generic Function]
  • as-uppercase character ⇒ uppercase-character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • as-uppercase string ⇒ new-string [G.F. Method]
  • as-uppercase! [Open Generic Function]
  • as-uppercase! string ⇒ string [G.F. Method]
  • as-lowercase [Open Generic Function]
  • as-lowercase character ⇒ lowercase-character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • as-lowercase string ⇒ new-string [G.F. Method]
  • as-lowercase! [Open Generic Function]
  • as-lowercase! string ⇒ string [G.F. Method]
  • Copying Objects
  • shallow-copy [Open Generic Function]
  • shallow-copy collection ⇒ new-collection [G.F. Method]
  • type-for-copy [Open Generic Function]
  • type-for-copy object ⇒ type [G.F. Method]
  • type-for-copy mutable-collection ⇒ type [G.F. Method]
  • type-for-copy limited-collection ⇒ type [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • type-for-copy range ⇒ <list> [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • type-for-copy limited-range ⇒ <list> [Sealed G.F. Method]
• Collection Operations
  • Collection Properties
  • empty? [Open Generic Function]
  • empty? collection ⇒ boolean [G.F. Method]
  • size [Open Generic Function]
  • size collection ⇒ integer-or-false [G.F. Method]
  • size array ⇒ size [G.F. Method]
  • size list ⇒ integer-or-false [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • size range ⇒ size [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • size table ⇒ size [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • size-setter [Open Generic Function]
  • rank [Open Generic Function]
  • rank array ⇒ rank [G.F. Method]
  • row-major-index [Open Generic Function]
  • row-major-index array #rest subscripts ⇒ index [G.F. Method]
  • dimensions [Open Generic Function]
  • dimensions vector ⇒ sequence [G.F. Method]
  • dimension [Open Generic Function]
  • dimension array axis ⇒ dimension [G.F. Method]
  • key-test [Open Generic Function]
  • key-test sequence ⇒ test-function [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • key-test table ⇒ test-function [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • key-sequence [Open Generic Function]
  • Selecting Elements
  • element [Open Generic Function]
  • element simple-vector index #key default ⇒ element [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • element unicode-string index #key default ⇒ character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • element byte-string index #key default ⇒ character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • element table key #key default ⇒ element [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • element-setter [Open Generic Function]
  • element-setter new-element simple-vector index [Sealed G.F. Method] ⇒ new-element
  • element-setter new-value table key [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • element-setter character unicode-string index [Sealed G.F. Method] ⇒ character
  • element-setter character byte-string index ⇒ character [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • aref [Open Generic Function]
  • aref array #rest indices ⇒ element [G.F. Method]
  • aref-setter [Open Generic Function]
  • aref-setter new-value array #rest indices ⇒ new-value [G.F. Method]
  • first [Function]
  • second [Function]
  • third [Function]
  • first-setter [Function]
  • second-setter [Function]
  • third-setter [Function]
  • last [Open Generic Function]
  • last-setter [Open Generic Function]
  • head [Function]
  • tail [Function]
  • head-setter [Function]
  • tail-setter [Function]
  • Adding and Removing Elements
  • add [Open Generic Function]
  • add! [Open Generic Function]
  • add! deque new-value ⇒ deque [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • add! stretchy-vector new-element ⇒ stretchy-vector [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • add! list element ⇒ pair [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • add-new [Open Generic Function]
  • add-new! [Open Generic Function]
  • remove [Open Generic Function]
  • remove! [Open Generic Function]
  • remove! deque value #key test count ⇒ deque [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • remove! stretchy-vector element #key test count [Sealed G.F. Method] ⇒ stretchy-vector
  • remove! list element #key test count ⇒ list [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • push [Open Generic Function]
  • pop [Open Generic Function]
  • push-last [Open Generic Function]
  • pop-last [Open Generic Function]
  • Reordering Elements
  • reverse [Open Generic Function]
  • reverse range ⇒ new-range [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • reverse! [Open Generic Function]
  • reverse! range ⇒ range [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • sort [Open Generic Function]
  • sort! [Open Generic Function]
  • Set Operations
  • intersection [Open Generic Function]
  • intersection range1 range2 #key test ⇒ range [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • union [Open Generic Function]
  • remove-duplicates [Open Generic Function]
  • remove-duplicates! [Open Generic Function]
  • Subsequence Operations
  • copy-sequence [Open Generic Function]
  • copy-sequence range #key start end ⇒ new-range [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • concatenate [Function]
  • concatenate-as [Function]
  • replace-subsequence! [Open Generic Function]
  • subsequence-position [Open Generic Function]
  • Mapping and Reducing
  • Simple Mapping
  • do [Function]
  • map [Function]
  • map-as [Function]
  • map-into [Function]
  • any? [Function]
  • every? [Function]
  • Extensible Mapping Functions
  • reduce [Open Generic Function]
  • reduce1 [Open Generic Function]
  • choose [Open Generic Function]
  • choose-by [Open Generic Function]
  • Other Mapping Functions
  • member? [Open Generic Function]
  • member? val range #key test ⇒ boolean [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • find-key [Open Generic Function]
  • remove-key! [Open Generic Function]
  • remove-key! table key ⇒ table [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • replace-elements! [Open Generic Function]
  • fill! [Open Generic Function]
  • The Iteration Protocol
  • forward-iteration-protocol [Open Generic Function]
  • forward-iteration-protocol table ⇒ initial-state limit next-state finished-state? current-key current-element current-element-setter copy-state [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • backward-iteration-protocol [Open Generic Function]
  • The Table Protocol
  • table-protocol [Open Generic Function]
  • table-protocol object-table ⇒ test-function hash-function [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • merge-hash-codes [Function]
  • object-hash [Function]
• Reflective Operations on Types
  • instance? [Function]
  • subtype? [Function]
  • object-class [Function]
  • all-superclasses [Function]
  • direct-superclasses [Function]
  • direct-subclasses [Function]
• Functional Operations
  • compose [Function]
  • complement [Function]
  • disjoin [Function]
  • conjoin [Function]
  • curry [Function]
  • rcurry [Function]
  • always [Function]
• Function Application
  • apply [Function]
• Reflective Operations on Functions
  • generic-function-methods [Function]
  • add-method [Function]
  • generic-function-mandatory-keywords [Function]
  • function-specializers [Function]
  • function-arguments [Function]
  • function-return-values [Function]
  • applicable-method? [Function]
  • sorted-applicable-methods [Function]
  • find-method [Function]
  • remove-method [Function]
• Operations on Conditions
  • Signaling Conditions
  • signal [Function]
  • error [Function]
  • cerror [Function]
  • break [Function]
  • check-type [Function]
  • abort [Function]
  • Handling Conditions
  • default-handler [Open Generic Function]
  • default-handler condition ⇒ false [G.F. Method]
  • default-handler serious-condition ⇒ {does not return} [G.F. Method]
  • default-handler warning ⇒ false [G.F. Method]
  • default-handler restart ⇒ {does not return} [Sealed G.F. Method]
  • restart-query [Open Generic Function]
  • restart-query restart ⇒ object [G.F. Method]
  • return-query [Open Generic Function]
  • Introspection on Conditions
  • do-handlers [Function]
  • return-allowed? [Open Generic Function]
  • return-allowed? condition ⇒ false [G.F. Method]
  • return-description [Open Generic Function]
  • condition-format-string [Function]
  • condition-format-arguments [Function]
  • type-error-value [Function]
  • type-error-expected-type [Function]

Chapter 13 Other Built-In Objects

• Other Built-In Objects
  • #t [<boolean>]
  • #f [<boolean>]
  • $permanent-hash-state [<object>]
  • #() [<empty-list>]

Chapter 14 The Built-In Macros and Special Definitions

• Overview
• Definitions
  • define variable [Definition]
  • define constant [Definition]
  • define generic [Definition]
  • define method [Definition]
  • define class [Definition]
  • define module [Definition]
  • define library [Definition]
  • define sealed domain [Definition]
  • define macro [Special Definition]
• Local Declarations
  • let [Local Declaration]
  • local [Local Declaration]
  • let handler [Local Declaration]
• Statements
  • Conditionals
  • if [Statement]
  • unless [Statement]
  • case [Statement]
  • select [Statement]
  • Iteration Constructs
  • while [Statement]
  • until ( test ) [Statement]
  • for [Statement]
  • Other Statement Macros
  • begin [Statement]
  • block [Statement]
  • Dynamic Extent of Block Features
  • Intervening Cleanup Clauses
  • Restrictions on the use of exit procedures
  • method [Statement]
• Function Macros
  • Assignment
  • := [Function Macro]
  • Assignment to a binding
  • Assignment to a function or function macro
  • Assignment to element references
  • Conditional Execution
  • | [Function Macro]
  • & [Function Macro]

Appendix A BNF

• General Notes
• Lexical Notes
• Lexical Grammar
  • Comments
  • Tokens
  • Reserved Words
  • Names, Symbols and Keywords
  • Operators
  • Character and String Literals
  • Numbers
• Phrase Grammar
  • Program Structure
  • Property Lists
  • Fragments
  • Definitions
  • Local Declarations
  • Expressions
  • Statements
  • Methods
  • Macro Definitions
  • Patterns
  • Templates
  • Auxiliary Rule Sets
  • Parsed Fragments

Appendix B Exported Names

• Overview
• Exported Classes
• Exported Functions
• Exported Constants
• Exported Defining Macros
• Exported Statement Macros
• Exported Function Macros

Glossary

Index

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The Dylan Reference Manual - 7 Apr 1998

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Copyright Apple Computer, Inc. 1996. Apple® and the Apple logo are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc. Used with permission. All Rights Reserved.

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